Kazakhstan's 2023 Law on Digital Assets mandates that only entities authorized and licensed within the Astana International Financial Centre are permitted to carry out activities involving unsecured digital assets

Comprehensive legal regimes for digital assets, such as the EU's MiCA and proposed US market-structure bills, defining how tokens are issued, traded, and supervised.

Licensing, custody, and market-conduct rules for platforms where people trade digital assets, shaped by collapses like FTX and jurisdictional disputes between regulators.